30/04/2007
With the recent Brazilian efforts so that etanol is changedded into one “commodity” international, the debate was lit on the benefits of the biocombustíveis versus fósseis fuels, to the oil base. The diverse arguments, against and the favor, leave clearly that the solution of the question is far from being easy.
Comparative degree between fuels
This also is the conclusion of a study that finishes to be published by two Norwegian scientists. Karl Hoyer and Erling Holden had compared the ambient costs of diverse fuels for automobiles, since the gasoline and the oil diesel, until that they are only technological promises, still far from the viabilização, as hydrogen.
The result is one “ranking” that it can seem logical to the first sight: the gasoline and diesel, as it would be of if waiting, are in the last ranks. But zebras in the classification has some hidden supreendentes.
The comparative degree enters alternative fuels for vehicles was made taking in consideration the energy expenses and the emission of pollutants in the stages of production, industrialization and consumption of some fuels. The use of energy, the emission of gases .causing of the effect greenhouse and the emission of pollutants had been computed local and regionally.
Gasoline , diesel and natural gas and alternative fuel sources had been compared, as etanol, methanol, biocombustíveis and hydrogen.
Of low to top in the classification, then after the vehicles the gasoline they come the vehicles bicombustible that consume gasoline and natural gas. “Any alternative fuel that we consider is better of what the cars who we use today, “ say the researchers.
The great champion in terms of ambient profits is the hydrogen, extracted of methanol and generating energy by means of cells the fuel. This is, however, an option still far from the economic viabilização and that, exactly of the point of view strict technician, still possesss problems to be decided.
Ambient costs
The researchers had mounted its ranking attributing to one weight of 1 the 16 for each one of the considered item: use of energy, carbon emissions and pollution with nitrogenados oxides. The weights had been attributed collecting the total data since the extration or production of the fuel until its burning in the engine of the car - of the well to the exhaust pipe, as the researchers say.
When the weights of each stage are added, the result are a note that is equivalent to all the energy chain of each fuel, in each one of the three item. For example, in the case of hydrogen, they had been considered the extration of the natural gas in the well, its processing for extration of liquefeito hydrogen, the storage of hydrogen and its use in a cell the fuel equipping an automobile.
The energy chain that possesss the lesser general addition was best placed in ranking, since the addition of its impacts in the considered item was the possible minor. The energy chains with the biggest general addition are considered the those potentially most harmful ones to the half-environment.
Better combustible
It does not leave of to be interesting the fact of that the hydrogen, exactly generating only water as by-product in its use in the cell the fuel, either also a “fossil alternative” - after all, the natural gas is practically “brother-twin” of the oil, being also a finite resource.
It is for that the researchers so are interested in extracting hydrogen of other sources - of the water, more specifically (only for the results most recent, sees Super molecule is true plant of force, generating hydrogen with solar energy e Biocélula the fuel generates energy of hydrogen in surrounding air).
The same natural gas, for another side, when burnt directly in the engine, only is behind the gasoline and of diesel, in terms of efficiency, energy expense and pollution.
Another disillusionment was biometanol - the extracted methanol of sources you renewed. Exactly when used in cells the fuel, as hydrogen, it it is in the last ranks, with great ambient impacts.
“He must be emphasized that no energy chain individually has the best rank in all the categories of impact, “the researchers say. “It always has some type of involved commitment. In such a way, it does not have obvious winners; only good and bad counterparts between the different categories of impact. “
Route of the biocombustíveis
It is not to toa that a consensus does not exist currently on what would be the option most sustainable or more ambiently correct when the subject the biocombustíveis are the fuels - exactly. What it has been seen they are partial arguments, based in partial research, that takes in account only partial aspects. The result is that they finish if sobressaindo the arguments politicians. As an unequivocal winner does not exist, he can also be considered routes to follow in the attempt of if reaching a auto-sustainable system of transports. The route of the efficiency can be followed - improving the energy income of each fuel, - the route of the substitution and the route of the reduction of the consumption. Exactly there, however, it has problems. “Each [route] has its defenders,” says the scientists, “but, in the reality, it has enormous zones leached ashes between them.”
VOCABULÁRIO:
Commodity – Conveniência, mercadoria, artigos de primeira necessidade, moeda neutra, bolsa de mercadorias, mercado de utilidades.
Published – Divulgador, editor, publicador.
Hidden- esconder, encobrir, esconder-se, ocultar-se.
Vehicles- veículo, carro.
Profits- proveito, lucro, benefício, ganho.
Weights- peso, gravidade, ponderação, consideração, importância, conseqüência.
Disillusionment- desilusão, desengano, desenganar, desiludir.
Counterparts- contraparte, reprodução, translado.
Currently – comum, corrente.
PERGUNTAS:
1- O QUE SERIA COMMODITY INTERNACIONAL?
2- QUAL É A DIFERENÇA ENTRE BIOCOMBUSTIVEIS E COMBUSTÍVEIS FOSSEIS?
3- QUAL O INTERESSE DOS PESQUISADORES EM EXTRAIR HIDROGÊNIO DE OUTRAS FONTES?
4- O QUE SE ENTENDE POR ROTA DOS COMBUSTÍVEIS?
5- QUAIS SÃO OS RECURSOS FINITOS?
Grupo:
Drielly nº 2
Jéssica nº 18
Joice nº 19
Larissa nº 24
sexta-feira, 15 de junho de 2007
Alternative Fuel
Brazil leaves in the front in alternative fuels - Ambientebrasil - 23/04/06
When if it thinks as they will be the ways of transport future it, then come to the head those images of ships passing through for skies of the urban centers, as the represented ones in the livened up drawings. But the evolution of the transports is far of this, at least short and average the stated periods. The type of energy that goes to move the terrestrial vehicles mainly is the great fidget. To some years, the drivers go to leave to supply its cars with gasoline. Beyond the alcohol, a consolidated alternative technology already, the vehicles will depend on the energies renewed to twirl for the streets and roads. They is esteem that the oil goes to be depleted the 70 or 80 years. Today, the price of the barrel of the oil already scares. These factors, added to the fact to have that if to reduce the ambient pollution, stimulate the studies and research on alternative power plants, as the solar one, the nuclear one, proceeding from biomass or vegetables (that they produce oils). When the situation of the oil to press, Brazil will be one of the few countries that will leave the chaos with advantage. For having a vast territory that can be cultivated, it will be able to create a good one offers of fuels you renewed, as the proceeding ones from the wood and the sugar cane-of-sugar (alcohol). "the solar energy, for the time being, has a cost very raised. The nuclear energy possesss great problems how much to the security. The renewable one and of biomass has great advantages. They will leave in the front the countries with great cultivated areas ", explains the teacher Fernando Tadeu Boçon, of the Department of Engineering Mechanics of the Federal University of the Paraná (UFPR). Another alternative source is the electric energy. Although all to know that the oil one day goes to finish, and this date are each next time, hardly new systems of energy will be implemented soon. For the professor Ramon Sigifredo Cortés Walls, also of the UFPR, still it lacks much investment in the development of new technologies for alternative fuels. "to arrive itself at this, it has that to have investment in research and development. Today, the studies are focados in something less including, very specific. Lack that organism that catches the project and implements. One does not see clearly politics of State for this. But some institutions, as the Petrobras, is worried about this. The Petrobras finances research with biodiesel, already thinking about the future, when it will not have more oil to commercialize ", it thinks. The world starts to think about alternative fuels. Some countries, as United States and Japan, had had interest in knowing as it functions and as a Brazilian technology developed in the decade of 1970 would be implemented, that the oil will be an efficient alternative when to finish. The alcohol, an old one known of the Brazilians, is a biocombustível. "Already we have the technology of production and refining, beyond the well developed engines. When the oil to be more expensive, goes to have that to exist one politics of State to make possible a bigger production, with more plant. Still we produce relatively little in comparison to the potential of the alcohol. When the oil really if to deplete, the alcohol will be a very viable alternative ", tells to the professor Fernando Boçon. In accordance with it, the developed countries can until preparing proper technologies, but they go to be attracted to adopt a ready system, whose viability already is proven, as it is the case of the alcohol.
*Vocabulary:
Thinks – pensa
Ships – navios
Through – através
Drawings – desenhos
Type – tipo
Oil – óleo
Vehicles – Veículos
Mainly – principalmente
Streets – ruas
Already – já
Deplete – esgote
Attracted – atraído
Adopt – adote
Developed – tornado
Arrive – chegue
Itself – próprio
Renewed – renovado
Chaos – caos
Knowing – saber
Hardly – mal
* Questions:
1) Qual energia que nos fornece o maior risco?
2) O que acontecerá daqui alguns anos?
3) Estima – se que o petróleo irá acabar. Daqui quantos anos?
4) Quando o petróleo acabar , quais países se saíram melhor?
5) Qual é a única instituição que está preocupada com o termino do petróleo citada no texto?
*Names : Talita Camacho nº 38 , Vanessa Alves nº 43
When if it thinks as they will be the ways of transport future it, then come to the head those images of ships passing through for skies of the urban centers, as the represented ones in the livened up drawings. But the evolution of the transports is far of this, at least short and average the stated periods. The type of energy that goes to move the terrestrial vehicles mainly is the great fidget. To some years, the drivers go to leave to supply its cars with gasoline. Beyond the alcohol, a consolidated alternative technology already, the vehicles will depend on the energies renewed to twirl for the streets and roads. They is esteem that the oil goes to be depleted the 70 or 80 years. Today, the price of the barrel of the oil already scares. These factors, added to the fact to have that if to reduce the ambient pollution, stimulate the studies and research on alternative power plants, as the solar one, the nuclear one, proceeding from biomass or vegetables (that they produce oils). When the situation of the oil to press, Brazil will be one of the few countries that will leave the chaos with advantage. For having a vast territory that can be cultivated, it will be able to create a good one offers of fuels you renewed, as the proceeding ones from the wood and the sugar cane-of-sugar (alcohol). "the solar energy, for the time being, has a cost very raised. The nuclear energy possesss great problems how much to the security. The renewable one and of biomass has great advantages. They will leave in the front the countries with great cultivated areas ", explains the teacher Fernando Tadeu Boçon, of the Department of Engineering Mechanics of the Federal University of the Paraná (UFPR). Another alternative source is the electric energy. Although all to know that the oil one day goes to finish, and this date are each next time, hardly new systems of energy will be implemented soon. For the professor Ramon Sigifredo Cortés Walls, also of the UFPR, still it lacks much investment in the development of new technologies for alternative fuels. "to arrive itself at this, it has that to have investment in research and development. Today, the studies are focados in something less including, very specific. Lack that organism that catches the project and implements. One does not see clearly politics of State for this. But some institutions, as the Petrobras, is worried about this. The Petrobras finances research with biodiesel, already thinking about the future, when it will not have more oil to commercialize ", it thinks. The world starts to think about alternative fuels. Some countries, as United States and Japan, had had interest in knowing as it functions and as a Brazilian technology developed in the decade of 1970 would be implemented, that the oil will be an efficient alternative when to finish. The alcohol, an old one known of the Brazilians, is a biocombustível. "Already we have the technology of production and refining, beyond the well developed engines. When the oil to be more expensive, goes to have that to exist one politics of State to make possible a bigger production, with more plant. Still we produce relatively little in comparison to the potential of the alcohol. When the oil really if to deplete, the alcohol will be a very viable alternative ", tells to the professor Fernando Boçon. In accordance with it, the developed countries can until preparing proper technologies, but they go to be attracted to adopt a ready system, whose viability already is proven, as it is the case of the alcohol.
*Vocabulary:
Thinks – pensa
Ships – navios
Through – através
Drawings – desenhos
Type – tipo
Oil – óleo
Vehicles – Veículos
Mainly – principalmente
Streets – ruas
Already – já
Deplete – esgote
Attracted – atraído
Adopt – adote
Developed – tornado
Arrive – chegue
Itself – próprio
Renewed – renovado
Chaos – caos
Knowing – saber
Hardly – mal
* Questions:
1) Qual energia que nos fornece o maior risco?
2) O que acontecerá daqui alguns anos?
3) Estima – se que o petróleo irá acabar. Daqui quantos anos?
4) Quando o petróleo acabar , quais países se saíram melhor?
5) Qual é a única instituição que está preocupada com o termino do petróleo citada no texto?
*Names : Talita Camacho nº 38 , Vanessa Alves nº 43
Alternative fuel
** Introduction **
Alternative Fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.BackgroundThe main purpose of fuel is to store energy in a form that is stable and can be easily transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such as transportation. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels, that store chemical potential energy. The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an engine, or heating a building, such as a home.Demand for Alternative FuelsIn the year 2000, there were about eight million vehicles around the world that ran on alternative fuels, indicating an increasing popularity of alternative fuels[citation needed]. There is growing social interest, and a perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations" [1]. Since burning fossil fuels are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to global warming.Another concern is the peak oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption. According to the 'peak oil' theory, the demand for oil will exceed supply and this gap will continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 2010 and 2020. Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the middle east. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war. (See future energy development for a general discussion)The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn.[2] However, in a competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used to mitigate fuel shortages.Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs)Interest in vehicles powered by alternative energy sources has been gaining traction in large part due to high gas prices and an increased awareness of global warming, which according to a recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report[1] is 90% likely caused by humans. The "fuel" is the set of chemicals which are oxidized and reduced to release the stored energy. In a battery or fuel cell powered vehicle, this is electricity. In some circumstances, however, electricity may be provided directly to a mobile electric engine, such as an electrified trolley or train, or a magnetically levitated train. In such cases, electricity itself may be treated as an alternative "fuel", since it replaces fuel energy used in transportation.Diesel type biofuels Hempseed oil fuel or other straight vegetable oils BiodieselOthers with internal combustion Ethanol, E85 Hydrogen internal-combustion Ammonia Natural gas, compressed or liquified Autogas (LPG, LP gas, propane) Synfuel, synthetic fuels Plug-in hybrid electric vehicleExternal combustion Organic waste fuel Wood gas on-board gasification Steam engine cars (like the Stanley Steamer)No combustion Electric vehicle Solar cell-powered or -charged electric cars Hydrogen fuel cell (see hydrogen car): liquefied or compressed hydrogen MAGLEV with induction drive (a variety of electric mass transit) Air car working on compressed airSome less conventional alternative fueled cars: Nuclear powered Solar Radiation SailAlternative fuels are designed to meet the needs of humans whether it be economic, political, or environmental. For example E85 is cheaper to purchase than gasoline, economic, in the Midwest of the United States specifically Minnesota and Illinois. Electric cars pollute 90% less than gasoline driven cars, environmental. Finally, many governments offer tax breaks to companies developing alternative fueled cars.Alternatives to oilRenewable energyMain article: Renewable energyA possible solution to a potential future energy shortage would be to use some of the world's remaining fossil fuel reserves as an investment in renewable energy infrastructure such as wind power, solar power, tidal power, geothermal power, hydropower, thermal depolymerization, methanol, ethanol and biodiesel, or in an oil lamp; try olive oil, canola oil, safflower oil, or sunflower oil which do not suffer from finite energy reserves, but do have a finite energy flow. The construction of sufficiently large renewable energy infrastructure might avoid the economic consequences of an extended period of decline in fossil fuel energy supply per capita.Most alternative fuels assume a source of renewable energy or at least sustainable energy (such as nuclear power) as a source of the fuel. A few alternative fuels (for example, hydrogen) may be made by sustainable or non-sustainable means. If they are made by non-sustainable means, such fuels are offered as alternatives usually because they offer to cause less pollution at the point of use, and perhaps less pollution overall.BiomassRenewable energyBiomass, in the energy production industry, refers to living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.There are very large quantities of unused biomass which can be obtained economically and used in place of coal and petroleum.Non-conventional oilNon-conventional oil is a fossil fuel chemically identical and with the same origin as conventional or traditional oil, but existing in a different form. They often contain more contaminants and are more energy intensive to produce, thus raising environmental concerns about the sustainability of these fuels. Non-conventional oil sources include tar sands, oil shale and bitumen. Enormous deposits of non-conventional oil include the Athabasca Oil Sands site in northwestern (Alberta) Canada and the Venezuelan Orinoco tar sands. Oil companies estimate that the Athabasca and Orinoco sites (both of similar size) have as much as two-thirds of total global oil deposits. However, the ability to 'see' underground is limited, so as with all oil reserves, the quantity of available oil is uncertain, even for so-called 'proven' reserves. Large mining operations are currently producing oil, and to some people, this proves the viability of the entire process. Others argue that since the technology is still relatively new, it remains unclear whether it is feasible for a significant percentage of world oil production to be extracted from tar sands. One fact that is agreed upon, is that the current extraction process takes a great deal of energy for heat and electrical power, presently coming from local natural gas, which itself is in short supply. There are some proposals to build a series of nuclear reactors to supply this energy. Non-conventional oil production is currently less energy-efficient, and has a larger environmental impact than conventional oil production.Other fossil fuels and the Fischer-Tropsch processIt's expected by geologists that natural gas will peak 5-15 years after oil does[citation needed]. There are large but finite coal reserves which may increasingly be used as a fuel source during oil depletion. The Fischer-Tropsch process converts carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide into heavier hydrocarbons, including synthetic oil. It is used today in South Africa to produce most of that country's diesel from coal. The Karrick process is an improved methodology for coal liquefaction, with higher efficiency. Since there are large but finite coal reserves in the world, this technology could be used as an interim transportation fuel if conventional oil were to become scarce. There are several companies developing the process to enable practical exploitation of so-called stranded gas reserves, those reserves which are impractical to exploit with conventional gas pipelines and LNG technology.methane hydrate is a form of natural gas. This substance consists of methane molecules trapped within the crystalline structure of water ice and is found in deposits under ocean sediments or within continental sedimentary rock formations. It is estimated that the global inventory of methane hydrate may equal as much as 10x the amount of natural gas. With current technology, most gas hydrate deposits are unlikely to be commercially exploited as an energy source. In addition, the combustion of methane results in the formation of carbon dioxide and would thus continue to contribute to global warming. Methane itself is also a greenhouse gas, so if it is "spilled" or released it will contribute to global warming. In other respects methane hydrate has the same problems of fossil fuel).Methanol (methanol economy) from any source can be used in internal combustion engines with minor modifications. It usually is made from natural gas, sometimes from coal, and could be made from any carbon source including CO2. Flexible fuel vehicles may run with a high percentage of ethanol (ethanol economy) (up to 85% Ethanol plus 15% gasoline for cold-starting vapor pressure).Methanol and ethanol are typically not primary sources of energy; however, they are a convenient way to store the energy for transportation. No type of fuel production is 100% energy-efficient, thus some energy is always lost in the conversion. This energy can be supplied by the original source, or from other sources like fossil fuel reserves, or solar radiation (either through photosynthesis or photovoltaic panels), or hydro, wind or nuclear energy (see below). The use of energy to produce alcohol fuels could potentially proceed via production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water, or possibly (in the case of heat from nuclear energy) by the sulfur-iodine cycle; then use of the hydrogen in the Fischer-Tropsch process along with CO2 from another source. Such a process might store and use hydrogen more efficiently than attempting to use hydrogen directly as fuel (a gallon of alcohol contains about 50% more hydrogen by weight than a gallon of liquid hydrogen). Since such a process would not liberate net quantities of new CO2 at the point of combustion, it would be greenhouse neutral, similar to alcohols made from biomass.Nuclear power and transportation energy and fuelIf nuclear energy were to replace gasoline and fossil fuels used for generation of electricity, then the U.S. would require at least an eightfold increase in nuclear power production, increasing from about 10% of all energy supplied to about 90%[citation needed].There are widespread public concerns about the health-risks and waste disposal problems of nuclear materials.Conventional Fission reactorsNuclear engineers estimate that the world could derive 400,000 quads (quadrillion, 1015, British thermal units), or about 420,000 EJ (exajoules = 1018 joules), of energy (1000 years at current levels of consumption, assuming new technology) from uranium isotope 235, if reprocessing is not employed. As uranium ore supplies are limited, a majority of this uranium would have to somehow be cost-effectively extracted from seawater. But this technology does not exist. However, at the current technology and consumption, the reserves will last 50 years.Fast breeder reactors are another possibility. As opposed to current LWR (light water reactors), which burn the rare isotope of uranium U-235 (producing and burning about an equal amount of plutonium in the process), fast breeder reactors produce much larger amounts of plutonium from common U-238, then fission that to produce electricity and thermal heat. Because there is about 139 times more U-238 than U-235 on Earth, it has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to 5,000,000,000 years' worth (sustainable but not renewable, depending on future technology) of U-238 for use in these power plants, and that they can return a high ratio of energy returned on energy invested (EROEI), and avoid some of the problems of current reactors by being automated, passively safe, and reaching economies of scale via mass production. In addition, wastes produced by these plants are less toxic than those of conventional reactors. There are a few such research projects working on fast breeders. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is currently working on the small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor (SSTAR). Problems arise from the higher levels of heat and radiation produced by this reactor. There are other, more exotic nuclear projects (such as pebble bed reactors), each with their own technical problems.The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been solved, although on-site spent fuel storage in casks has allowed power plants to make room in their spent fuel pools. Today, the only industrial solution lies with storage in underground repositories.Since automobiles and trucks consume a great deal of the total energy budget of developed countries, some means would be required to deliver the energy generated from nuclear power to these vehicles. The most direct solution is to use electric vehicles. Mass transit will be an important aspect of this solution, as it is readily electrified. Some think that hydrogen may play a role (see below). If so, it could be produced by electrolysis, either conventionally or at high-temperatures supplied by reactor heat. Another possibility for producing hydrogen by nuclear power is the heat-driven sulfur-iodine cycle.Hydrogen need not be used directly in transportation. A hybrid chemical-energy storage process might use such hydrogen to produce methanol from CO2 (see above), which would then feed into the present internal-combustion-engine transportation infrastructure with far less modification than would be needed for hydrogen. See methanol economy. To reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, hydrogen can be combined with nitrogen from air to produce ammonia which can then be used as fuel for internal combustion engines. [2] [3]Fusion reactorsThe technology has not yet been developed to maintain significant energy gains. In a weapons system, it is relatively easy to start nuclear fusion reactions, which generate large amounts of energy cf. thermonuclear weapons. However, for a power plant to achieve controlled and sustained fusion requires a large amount of input energy to obtain either the required magnetic confinement fusionhigh-temperature electromagnetic confinement, or instantaneous inertial confinement fusionhigh densities.Electricity produced in a typical fusion facility would create radioactive waste, thus there are some safety concerns. As compared to a fission nuclear plant, the risk of nuclear 'meltdown' is reduced, because the fuel available in a fusion reactor is only enough to sustain the reaction for minutes at a time (as opposed to fission which has enough fuel to power a reaction for hours)[4]. The main waste produced is simply helium. However, the process will irradiate the main chamber of power plant, which will need to be held securely until the radiation decays to safe levels in hundreds, rather than tens of thousands of years[5]. The natural resources required for the implementation of the DT (deuterium-tritium) fuel cycle (the option that is most likely to be put into effect) are essentially inexhaustible since they can both be recovered from water—however, since tritium is much rarer than deuterium in water, plans for a nuclear fusion plant would use the radiation from the reactor to cause tritium to be released from a nuclear reaction with the common element lithium, which will line the walls of the reactor.The research to make fusion power possible started in 1950, and has made notable progress since then. ITER should be the first fusion reactor which will achieve burning plasmas. Though there are some grounds to optimistically hope that it may reach ignition, it will cost a total of €10 billion over 30 years ($12.1 billion) and is not expected to be completed until 2015. The European Union, Japan, Russia, the USA, South Korea, India and China are jointly participating in ITER. ITER is only a scientific project, not a commercial power plant; however, if ITER is successful a test commercial power plant will be built, currently called DEMO, to test the most fincially efficient technologies. If the current rate of research is maintained, fusion power may become a viable economic alternative to oil around 2050.Electricity from fusion power is an alternative to oil for generating electricity; however, unlike oil, the energy source is not directly usable as a fuel for transportation (assuming liquid fuels). In this respect, it has the same limitations as electricity from fission, solar, and other sources, which for now must rely on the use of batteries for transportation. One possible alternative would be an intermediate chemical energy storage economy (such as hydrogen economy, ammonia economy, methanol economy or ethanol economy) which could make use of nuclear power for chemical synthesis.HydrogenMain article: Hydrogen economyProponents of a hydrogen economy think hydrogen could hold the key to ongoing energy demands. Relatively new technologies (such as fuel cells) can be used to efficiently harness the chemical energy stored in diatomic hydrogen (H2). However, there is no accessible natural reserve of uncombined hydrogen, since what little there is resides in Earth's outer atmosphere (exosphere). Hydrogen for use as fuel must first be produced using another energy source; hydrogen would thus actually be a means to transport energy, rather than an energy source, just as common rechargeable batteries are. One existing method of hydrogen production is steam methane reformation; however, the most common source of methane is natural gas, which is in short supply. Another method of hydrogen production is through electrolysis of water which uses electricity generated from any source, or a combination of fossil fuels, nuclear, and/or renewable energy sources. Biomass or coal gasification, photoelectrolysis, and genetically modified organisms have also been proposed as means to produce hydrogen.According to the majority of energy experts and researchers, hydrogen is currently impractical as an alternative to fossil-based liquid fuels. It is inefficient to produce, has low energy density (hydrogen gas tanks would need to be 2-3 times as large as conventional gasoline tanks), and is expensive to transport and convert back to electricity. Also hydrogen fuel cells are still prohibitively expensive as a prime mover of transportation. However, theoretically it is more efficient to burn fossil fuels to produce hydrogen than burning oil directly in car engines (due to efficiencies of scale). Unfortunately, this does not take into consideration the significant energy cost of having to build hundreds of millions of new hydrogen powered vehicles plus hydrogen fuel distribution infrastructure. Research on the feasibility of hydrogen as a fuel is still underway, and the outcome is uncertain.A far more practical way to utilize hydrogen is to bond it with the nitrogen in the air to produce ammonia which can then be easily liquefied, transported and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel. [10] [11]Air engineThe Air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about 10x cheaper than fossil oil, making it an economicly attractive alternative (hydrogen is about 10x more expensive than oil or 100x more expensive than compressed air). The air engine has also broken most barriers (storage of the energy, range, ...).Liquid nitrogenA liquid nitrogen would extract energy from the temperature difference between air and liquid nitrogen. The Stirling engine or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power such vehicles. A means to generate liquid nitrogen, which is only an energy storage medium, is needed.
** Vocabulary **
* Source- fonte ; nascente.
* Purpose- proposito ; objetivo ; finalidade.
* Asily- facilmente.
* Vehicles- instrumento ; meio.
* Peak- pico ; ponta de uma montanha.
* Supply- fornecimento ; provisão.
* Increased- aumentar ; intensificar.
* Perhaps- talvez ; porventura.
*Commonly- Geralmente ; vulgarmente.
* Matter- matéria ; substância.
** Quetions **
1-Por que os combustiveis alternativos se tornaram tão importantes para o mundo?
2-O que estimulam os estudos e pesquisas sobre fontes de energia alternativas?
3- De que e feito o combustivel alternativo?
4- qual a principal finalidade do combustuvel alternativo?
5- O que o convencial combustivel inclui?
** Components **
Fabrícia 06, Fernanda 10, Graziela 13, Janaína 16 e Vivian 46 - 3D
Alternative fuels
** Introduction **
In the context of environmental sustainability, 'alternative fuel' often implies an ecologically benign renewable fuel.Alternative Fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.Background The main purpose of fuel is to store energy in a form that is stable and can be easily transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such as transportation. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels, that store chemical potential energy. The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an engine, or heating a building, such as a home.Demand for Alternative FuelsIn the year 2000, there were about eight million vehicles around the world that ran on alternative fuels, indicating an increasing popularity of alternative fuels[citation needed]. There is growing social interest, and a perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations" [1]. Since burning fossil fuels are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to global warming.Another concern is the peak oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption. According to the 'peak oil' theory, the demand for oil will exceed supply and this gap will continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 2010 and 2020. Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the middle east. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war. (See future energy development for a general discussion)The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn.[2] However, in a competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used to mitigate fuel shortages.Alternative Fuel Vehicles (AFVs)Interest in vehicles powered by alternative energy sources has been gaining traction in large part due to high gas prices and an increased awareness of global warming, which according to a recent Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) report[1] is 90% likely caused by humans. The "fuel" is the set of chemicals which are oxidized and reduced to release the stored energy. In a battery or fuel cell powered vehicle, this is electricity. In some circumstances, however, electricity may be provided directly to a mobile electric engine, such as an electrified trolley or train, or a magnetically levitated train. In such cases, electricity itself may be treated as an alternative "fuel", since it replaces fuel energy used in transportation.Diesel type biofuels Hempseed oil fuel or other straight vegetable oils BiodieselOthers with internal combustion Ethanol, E85 Hydrogen internal-combustion Ammonia Natural gas, compressed or liquified Autogas (LPG, LP gas, propane) Synfuel, synthetic fuels Plug-in hybrid electric vehicleExternal combustion Organic waste fuel Wood gas on-board gasification Steam engine cars (like the Stanley Steamer)No combustion Electric vehicle Solar cell-powered or -charged electric cars Hydrogen fuel cell (see hydrogen car): liquefied or compressed hydrogen MAGLEV with induction drive (a variety of electric mass transit) Air car working on compressed airSome less conventional alternative fueled cars: Nuclear powered Solar Radiation SailAlternative fuels are designed to meet the needs of humans whether it be economic, political, or environmental. For example E85 is cheaper to purchase than gasoline, economic, in the Midwest of the United States specifically Minnesota and Illinois. Electric cars pollute 90% less than gasoline driven cars, environmental. Finally, many governments offer tax breaks to companies developing alternative fueled cars.Alternatives to oilRenewable energyMain article: Renewable energyA possible solution to a potential future energy shortage would be to use some of the world's remaining fossil fuel reserves as an investment in renewable energy infrastructure such as wind power, solar power, tidal power, geothermal power, hydropower, thermal depolymerization, methanol, ethanol and biodiesel, or in an oil lamp; try olive oil, canola oil, safflower oil, or sunflower oil which do not suffer from finite energy reserves, but do have a finite energy flow. The construction of sufficiently large renewable energy infrastructure might avoid the economic consequences of an extended period of decline in fossil fuel energy supply per capita.Most alternative fuels assume a source of renewable energy or at least sustainable energy (such as nuclear power) as a source of the fuel. A few alternative fuels (for example, hydrogen) may be made by sustainable or non-sustainable means. If they are made by non-sustainable means, such fuels are offered as alternatives usually because they offer to cause less pollution at the point of use, and perhaps less pollution overall.BiomassRenewable energyBiomass, in the energy production industry, refers to living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.There are very large quantities of unused biomass which can be obtained economically and used in place of coal and petroleum.Non-conventional oilNon-conventional oil is a fossil fuel chemically identical and with the same origin as conventional or traditional oil, but existing in a different form. They often contain more contaminants and are more energy intensive to produce, thus raising environmental concerns about the sustainability of these fuels. Non-conventional oil sources include tar sands, oil shale and bitumen. Enormous deposits of non-conventional oil include the Athabasca Oil Sands site in northwestern (Alberta) Canada and the Venezuelan Orinoco tar sands. Oil companies estimate that the Athabasca and Orinoco sites (both of similar size) have as much as two-thirds of total global oil deposits. However, the ability to 'see' underground is limited, so as with all oil reserves, the quantity of available oil is uncertain, even for so-called 'proven' reserves. Large mining operations are currently producing oil, and to some people, this proves the viability of the entire process. Others argue that since the technology is still relatively new, it remains unclear whether it is feasible for a significant percentage of world oil production to be extracted from tar sands. One fact that is agreed upon, is that the current extraction process takes a great deal of energy for heat and electrical power, presently coming from local natural gas, which itself is in short supply. There are some proposals to build a series of nuclear reactors to supply this energy. Non-conventional oil production is currently less energy-efficient, and has a larger environmental impact than conventional oil production.Other fossil fuels and the Fischer-Tropsch processIt's expected by geologists that natural gas will peak 5-15 years after oil does[citation needed]. There are large but finite coal reserves which may increasingly be used as a fuel source during oil depletion. The Fischer-Tropsch process converts carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide into heavier hydrocarbons, including synthetic oil. It is used today in South Africa to produce most of that country's diesel from coal. The Karrick process is an improved methodology for coal liquefaction, with higher efficiency. Since there are large but finite coal reserves in the world, this technology could be used as an interim transportation fuel if conventional oil were to become scarce. There are several companies developing the process to enable practical exploitation of so-called stranded gas reserves, those reserves which are impractical to exploit with conventional gas pipelines and LNG technology.methane hydrate is a form of natural gas. This substance consists of methane molecules trapped within the crystalline structure of water ice and is found in deposits under ocean sediments or within continental sedimentary rock formations. It is estimated that the global inventory of methane hydrate may equal as much as 10x the amount of natural gas. With current technology, most gas hydrate deposits are unlikely to be commercially exploited as an energy source. In addition, the combustion of methane results in the formation of carbon dioxide and would thus continue to contribute to global warming. Methane itself is also a greenhouse gas, so if it is "spilled" or released it will contribute to global warming. In other respects methane hydrate has the same problems of fossil fuel).Methanol (methanol economy) from any source can be used in internal combustion engines with minor modifications. It usually is made from natural gas, sometimes from coal, and could be made from any carbon source including CO2. Flexible fuel vehicles may run with a high percentage of ethanol (ethanol economy) (up to 85% Ethanol plus 15% gasoline for cold-starting vapor pressure).Methanol and ethanol are typically not primary sources of energy; however, they are a convenient way to store the energy for transportation. No type of fuel production is 100% energy-efficient, thus some energy is always lost in the conversion. This energy can be supplied by the original source, or from other sources like fossil fuel reserves, or solar radiation (either through photosynthesis or photovoltaic panels), or hydro, wind or nuclear energy (see below). The use of energy to produce alcohol fuels could potentially proceed via production of hydrogen by electrolysis of water, or possibly (in the case of heat from nuclear energy) by the sulfur-iodine cycle; then use of the hydrogen in the Fischer-Tropsch process along with CO2 from another source. Such a process might store and use hydrogen more efficiently than attempting to use hydrogen directly as fuel (a gallon of alcohol contains about 50% more hydrogen by weight than a gallon of liquid hydrogen). Since such a process would not liberate net quantities of new CO2 at the point of combustion, it would be greenhouse neutral, similar to alcohols made from biomass.Nuclear power and transportation energy and fuelIf nuclear energy were to replace gasoline and fossil fuels used for generation of electricity, then the U.S. would require at least an eightfold increase in nuclear power production, increasing from about 10% of all energy supplied to about 90%[citation needed].There are widespread public concerns about the health-risks and waste disposal problems of nuclear materials.Conventional Fission reactorsNuclear engineers estimate that the world could derive 400,000 quads (quadrillion, 1015, British thermal units), or about 420,000 EJ (exajoules = 1018 joules), of energy (1000 years at current levels of consumption, assuming new technology) from uranium isotope 235, if reprocessing is not employed. As uranium ore supplies are limited, a majority of this uranium would have to somehow be cost-effectively extracted from seawater. But this technology does not exist. However, at the current technology and consumption, the reserves will last 50 years.Fast breeder reactors are another possibility. As opposed to current LWR (light water reactors), which burn the rare isotope of uranium U-235 (producing and burning about an equal amount of plutonium in the process), fast breeder reactors produce much larger amounts of plutonium from common U-238, then fission that to produce electricity and thermal heat. Because there is about 139 times more U-238 than U-235 on Earth, it has been estimated that there is anywhere from 10,000 to 5,000,000,000 years' worth (sustainable but not renewable, depending on future technology) of U-238 for use in these power plants, and that they can return a high ratio of energy returned on energy invested (EROEI), and avoid some of the problems of current reactors by being automated, passively safe, and reaching economies of scale via mass production. In addition, wastes produced by these plants are less toxic than those of conventional reactors. There are a few such research projects working on fast breeders. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory is currently working on the small, sealed, transportable, autonomous reactor (SSTAR). Problems arise from the higher levels of heat and radiation produced by this reactor. There are other, more exotic nuclear projects (such as pebble bed reactors), each with their own technical problems.The long-term radioactive waste storage problems of nuclear power have not been solved, although on-site spent fuel storage in casks has allowed power plants to make room in their spent fuel pools. Today, the only industrial solution lies with storage in underground repositories.Since automobiles and trucks consume a great deal of the total energy budget of developed countries, some means would be required to deliver the energy generated from nuclear power to these vehicles. The most direct solution is to use electric vehicles. Mass transit will be an important aspect of this solution, as it is readily electrified. Some think that hydrogen may play a role (see below). If so, it could be produced by electrolysis, either conventionally or at high-temperatures supplied by reactor heat. Another possibility for producing hydrogen by nuclear power is the heat-driven sulfur-iodine cycle.Hydrogen need not be used directly in transportation. A hybrid chemical-energy storage process might use such hydrogen to produce methanol from CO2 (see above), which would then feed into the present internal-combustion-engine transportation infrastructure with far less modification than would be needed for hydrogen. See methanol economy. To reduce the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere, hydrogen can be combined with nitrogen from air to produce ammonia which can then be used as fuel for internal combustion engines. [2] [3]Fusion reactorsThe technology has not yet been developed to maintain significant energy gains. In a weapons system, it is relatively easy to start nuclear fusion reactions, which generate large amounts of energy cf. thermonuclear weapons. However, for a power plant to achieve controlled and sustained fusion requires a large amount of input energy to obtain either the required magnetic confinement fusionhigh-temperature electromagnetic confinement, or instantaneous inertial confinement fusionhigh densities.Electricity produced in a typical fusion facility would create radioactive waste, thus there are some safety concerns. As compared to a fission nuclear plant, the risk of nuclear 'meltdown' is reduced, because the fuel available in a fusion reactor is only enough to sustain the reaction for minutes at a time (as opposed to fission which has enough fuel to power a reaction for hours)[4]. The main waste produced is simply helium. However, the process will irradiate the main chamber of power plant, which will need to be held securely until the radiation decays to safe levels in hundreds, rather than tens of thousands of years[5]. The natural resources required for the implementation of the DT (deuterium-tritium) fuel cycle (the option that is most likely to be put into effect) are essentially inexhaustible since they can both be recovered from water—however, since tritium is much rarer than deuterium in water, plans for a nuclear fusion plant would use the radiation from the reactor to cause tritium to be released from a nuclear reaction with the common element lithium, which will line the walls of the reactor.The research to make fusion power possible started in 1950, and has made notable progress since then. ITER should be the first fusion reactor which will achieve burning plasmas. Though there are some grounds to optimistically hope that it may reach ignition, it will cost a total of €10 billion over 30 years ($12.1 billion) and is not expected to be completed until 2015. The European Union, Japan, Russia, the USA, South Korea, India and China are jointly participating in ITER. ITER is only a scientific project, not a commercial power plant; however, if ITER is successful a test commercial power plant will be built, currently called DEMO, to test the most fincially efficient technologies. If the current rate of research is maintained, fusion power may become a viable economic alternative to oil around 2050.Electricity from fusion power is an alternative to oil for generating electricity; however, unlike oil, the energy source is not directly usable as a fuel for transportation (assuming liquid fuels). In this respect, it has the same limitations as electricity from fission, solar, and other sources, which for now must rely on the use of batteries for transportation. One possible alternative would be an intermediate chemical energy storage economy (such as hydrogen economy, ammonia economy, methanol economy or ethanol economy) which could make use of nuclear power for chemical synthesis.HydrogenMain article: Hydrogen economyProponents of a hydrogen economy think hydrogen could hold the key to ongoing energy demands. Relatively new technologies (such as fuel cells) can be used to efficiently harness the chemical energy stored in diatomic hydrogen (H2). However, there is no accessible natural reserve of uncombined hydrogen, since what little there is resides in Earth's outer atmosphere (exosphere). Hydrogen for use as fuel must first be produced using another energy source; hydrogen would thus actually be a means to transport energy, rather than an energy source, just as common rechargeable batteries are. One existing method of hydrogen production is steam methane reformation; however, the most common source of methane is natural gas, which is in short supply. Another method of hydrogen production is through electrolysis of water which uses electricity generated from any source, or a combination of fossil fuels, nuclear, and/or renewable energy sources. Biomass or coal gasification, photoelectrolysis, and genetically modified organisms have also been proposed as means to produce hydrogen.According to the majority of energy experts and researchers, hydrogen is currently impractical as an alternative to fossil-based liquid fuels. It is inefficient to produce, has low energy density (hydrogen gas tanks would need to be 2-3 times as large as conventional gasoline tanks), and is expensive to transport and convert back to electricity. Also hydrogen fuel cells are still prohibitively expensive as a prime mover of transportation. However, theoretically it is more efficient to burn fossil fuels to produce hydrogen than burning oil directly in car engines (due to efficiencies of scale). Unfortunately, this does not take into consideration the significant energy cost of having to build hundreds of millions of new hydrogen powered vehicles plus hydrogen fuel distribution infrastructure. Research on the feasibility of hydrogen as a fuel is still underway, and the outcome is uncertain.A far more practical way to utilize hydrogen is to bond it with the nitrogen in the air to produce ammonia which can then be easily liquefied, transported and used (directly or indirectly) as a clean and renewable fuel. [10] [11]Air engineThe Air engine is an emission-free piston engine using compressed air as fuel. Unlike hydrogen, compressed air is about 10x cheaper than fossil oil, making it an economicly attractive alternative (hydrogen is about 10x more expensive than oil or 100x more expensive than compressed air). The air engine has also broken most barriers (storage of the energy, range, ...).Liquid nitrogenA liquid nitrogen would extract energy from the temperature difference between air and liquid nitrogen. The Stirling engine or cryogenic heat engine offers a way to power such vehicles. A means to generate liquid nitrogen, which is only an energy storage medium, is needed.
** After to have analyzed the text, answers the questions **
1- Por que os combustiveis alternativos se tornaram tão importantes para o mundo?
2- O que estimulam os estudos e pesquisas sobre fontes de energia alternativas?
3- Quais os benefícios que os combustíveis alternativos oferecem?
4- Quais os principais combustíveis alternativos?
5- Quais combustíveis oferem risco para o aquecimento global?
** Vocabulary **
* Environmental - ambiental;
* Such - tais;
* Background - fundo;
* Harness - chicote de fios;
* Sulfur - iodine - enxôfre-iodo;
* However - entretanto;
* Researchers - investigadores;
* Supplied - fornecido;
* Likely - provavelmente;
* Storage - armazenamento.
** Components **
Fabrícia Nº 06, Fernanda Nº 10, Graziela Nº13, Janaína Nº16 e Vivian Nº 46
Alternative Fuels
IntroductionAlternative fuels, as defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), include ethanol, natural gas, propane, hydrogen, biodiesel*, electricity, methanol, and p-series fuels. These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications. Learn more about how the EPAct Program works by going to the EPAct Web site.
Biodiesel
Biodiesel is a domestically produced, renewable fuel that can be manufactured from vegetable oils, animal fats, or recycled restaurant greases. Biodiesel is safe, biode
gradable, and reduces serious air pollutants such as particulates, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and air toxics. Blends of 20% biodiesel with 80% petroleum diesel (B20) can generally be used in unmodified diesel engines; however, users should consult their OEM and engine warranty statement. Biodiesel can also be used in its pure form (B100), but it may require certain engine modifications to avoid maintenance and performance problems and may not be suitable for wintertime use. Users should consult their engine warranty statement. For more information on fuel blends of less than 20% biodiesel, please see our site on fuel blends.Electricity
Electricity can be used as a transportation fuel to power battery electric and fuel cell vehicles. When used to power electric vehicles or EVs, electricity is stored in an energy storage device such as a battery. EV batteries have a limited storage capacity and their electricity must be replenished by plugging the vehicle into an electrical source. The electricity for recharging the batteries can come from th
e existing power grid, or from distributed renewable sources such as solar or wind energy.Fuel cell vehicles use electricity produced from an electrochemical reaction that takes place when hydrogen and oxygen are combined in the fuel cell "stack." The production of electricity using fuel cells takes place without combustion or pollution and leaves only two byproducts, heat and water.
Ethanol
Ethanol is an alcohol-based alternative fuel produced by fermenting and distilling starch crops that have been converted into simple sugars. Feedstocks for this fuel include corn, barley, and wheat. Ethanol can also be produced from "cellulosic biomass" such as trees and grasses and is called bioethanol. Ethanol is most commonly used to increase octane and improve the emissions quality of gasoline.
Ethanol can be blended with gasoline to create E85, a blend of 85% ethanol and 15% gasoline. E85 and blends with even higher concentrations of ethanol, E95, for example, qualify as alternative fuels under the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct). Vehicles that run on E85 are called flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) and are offered by several vehicle manufacturers. See the ethanol vehicles page for more information on FFVs.
Hydrogen
Hydrogen (H2) will play an important role in developing sustainable transportation in the United States, because in the future it may be produced in virtually unlimited quantities using renewable resources. Hydrogen has been used effectively in a number of internal combustion engine vehicles as pure hydrogen mixed with natural gas. For more information on this fuel blend, see the hydrogen/natural gas blend site.
After to have analyzed the text, answers the questions.
(Após ter analisado o texto, responda as questões.)
1. O que é biodisel ?
2. O que é etanol e como é feito ?
3. Quais os beneficios que os combustuveis alternativos oferecem ?
4. De onde é extraido o biodisel ?
5. Por que o hidrogenio tem um importante papel para os Estados Unidos?
Vocabulary
(vocabulário)
* Fleet- frota
* Higher- mais altamente
* Blends- misturas
* Purchased- comprado
* Enviromental- ambiental
* Pricing- fixar o preço
* Pages- paginas
* Being- sendo
* Fats- gorduras
* Greases- graxas
* Safe- seguro
* Blends- mistura
* However- mas
* Warranty- garantia
* Suitable- apropriado
Components of the group
(componentes do grupo)
Dayse Moura n°01Elaine Santos n°04
Evelyne Ferrari n° 05
Giseli Molina n°11
keith Yukari n°22
quinta-feira, 14 de junho de 2007
TEXTO:ALTERNATIVE FUEL
Alternative fuels, as defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), include ethanol, natural gas, propane, hydrogen, biodiesel*, electricity, methanol, and p-series fuels. These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications. Learn more about how the EPAct Program works by going to the EPAct Web site.
* Pure biodiesel (B100) is considered an alternative fuel under EPAct. Lower-level biodiesel blends are not considered alternative fuels, but covered fleets can earn one EPAct credit for every 450 gallons of B100 purchased for use in blends of 20% or higher.
Higher blends, even pure biodiesel (100% biodiesel, or B100), may be able to be used in some engines (built since 1994) with little or no modification. However, engine manufacturers are concerned about the impact of B100 on engine durability. Additionally, B100 is generally not suitable for use in low temperature conditions. Transportation and storage of B100, however, require special management.
QUESTÕES:
1)De acordo com o texto, o que foi incluído pelo ato da política de energia de 1992 à respeito dos combutíveis alternativos?
2)O que pode ser reduzido com utilização destes combustíveis alternativos nos veículos?
3)O biodiesel puro, pode ser considerado um combustível alternativo?
4) As misturas Lower-level do biodiesel não são consideradas combustíveis alternativos, mas e suas frotas?
5)Motores construídos em 1994 usavam misturas mais elevadas, até mesmo biodiesel puro.Nos dias de hoje, esses tipos de mistura ainda são usados?
VOCABULÁRIO:
Alternative fuels, as defined by the Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPAct), include ethanol, natural gas, propane, hydrogen, biodiesel*, electricity, methanol, and p-series fuels. These fuels are being used worldwide in a variety of vehicle applications. Learn more about how the EPAct Program works by going to the EPAct Web site.
* Pure biodiesel (B100) is considered an alternative fuel under EPAct. Lower-level biodiesel blends are not considered alternative fuels, but covered fleets can earn one EPAct credit for every 450 gallons of B100 purchased for use in blends of 20% or higher.
Higher blends, even pure biodiesel (100% biodiesel, or B100), may be able to be used in some engines (built since 1994) with little or no modification. However, engine manufacturers are concerned about the impact of B100 on engine durability. Additionally, B100 is generally not suitable for use in low temperature conditions. Transportation and storage of B100, however, require special management.
QUESTÕES:
1)De acordo com o texto, o que foi incluído pelo ato da política de energia de 1992 à respeito dos combutíveis alternativos?
2)O que pode ser reduzido com utilização destes combustíveis alternativos nos veículos?
3)O biodiesel puro, pode ser considerado um combustível alternativo?
4) As misturas Lower-level do biodiesel não são consideradas combustíveis alternativos, mas e suas frotas?
5)Motores construídos em 1994 usavam misturas mais elevadas, até mesmo biodiesel puro.Nos dias de hoje, esses tipos de mistura ainda são usados?
VOCABULÁRIO:
- Purchased-comprado;
- Guels-alternativos;
- Cengines-motores;
- Blends-misturas;
- However-entretanto;
- Built-construidos;
- Storage-armazenamento;
- Managemente-gerência;
NOMES e NÚMEROS:
Nayara(31)
Jaqueline(17)
Laís (23)
Nataly(30)
Luma(29)
Alternatives Fuels
Alternative fuels are derrived from resources other than petroleum. Some are produced domestically, reducing our dependence on imported oil, and some are derived from renewable sources. Often, they produce less pollution than gasoline or diesel.To promote alternative fuels, the Federal government offers tax incentives to consumers purchasing qualifying alternative fuel vehicles.
Ethanol is produced domestically from corn and other crops and produces less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fuels.
Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils and animal fats. It usually produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel that generates less air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Propane, also called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is a domestically abundant fossil fuel that generates less harmful air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Hydrogen can be produced domestically from fossil fuels (such as coal), nuclear power, or renewable resources, such as hydropower. Fuel cell vehicles powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful air pollutants.
Perguntas:
1- O que são combustíveis alternativos?
2- Onde pode ser produzido o hidrogênio?
3- Onde o ethanol é produzido?
4- De que tipos de materiais o biodiesel é derivado?
5- Quais são as principais formas de combustiveis alternaltivos?
Vocabulário:
crops: colheita, produção;
less: uma quantidade menor; o inferior;menor;menos;
harmful: que causa danos;
cell: cela;
purchasing: compra; aquisição;
vehicles: veículo; aparelho;
Nome e números dos componentes do grupo:
Felipe Alves 07
Juliana 20
Leandro 25
Lívia 27
Tatiane 41
Ethanol is produced domestically from corn and other crops and produces less greenhouse gas emissions than conventional fuels.
Biodiesel is derived from vegetable oils and animal fats. It usually produces less air pollutants than petroleum-based diesel.
Natural gas is a fossil fuel that generates less air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Propane, also called liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), is a domestically abundant fossil fuel that generates less harmful air pollutants and greenhouse gases.
Hydrogen can be produced domestically from fossil fuels (such as coal), nuclear power, or renewable resources, such as hydropower. Fuel cell vehicles powered by pure hydrogen emit no harmful air pollutants.
Perguntas:
1- O que são combustíveis alternativos?
2- Onde pode ser produzido o hidrogênio?
3- Onde o ethanol é produzido?
4- De que tipos de materiais o biodiesel é derivado?
5- Quais são as principais formas de combustiveis alternaltivos?
Vocabulário:
crops: colheita, produção;
less: uma quantidade menor; o inferior;menor;menos;
harmful: que causa danos;
cell: cela;
purchasing: compra; aquisição;
vehicles: veículo; aparelho;
Nome e números dos componentes do grupo:
Felipe Alves 07
Juliana 20
Leandro 25
Lívia 27
Tatiane 41
quarta-feira, 13 de junho de 2007
Alternative Fuel
The definition of Alternative Fuel varies according to the context of its usage. In the context of petroleum substitutes, the term 'alternative fuel' can imply any available fuel or energy source, and does not necessarily refer to a source of renewable energy. In the context of environmental sustainability, 'alternative fuel' often implies an ecologically benign renewable fuel.
Alternative Fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.
Background
The main purpose of fuel is to store energy in a form that is stable and can be easily transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such as transportation. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels, that store chemical potential energy. The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an engine, or heating a building, such as a home.
Demand for Alternative Fuels
In the year 2000, there were about eight million vehicles around the world that ran on alternative fuels, indicating an increasing popularity of alternative fuels. There is growing social interest, and a perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.
The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations". Since burning fossil fuels are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to global warming.
Another concern is the peak oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption. According to the 'peak oil' theory, the demand for oil will exceed supply and this gap will continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 2010 and 2020. Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the middle east. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war.
The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn. However, in a competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used to mitigate fuel shortages.
Perguntas:
1- O que são combustíveis alternativos?
2- Dê exemplos de combustíveis alternativos?
3- De acordo com o texto qual o propósito principal do combustível alternativo?
4- Quais combustíveis colaboram para o aquecimento global?
5- O uso do milho como fonte para o etanol pode ter efeitos difundidos?
Vocabulário:
source: fonte
environmental: ambiental
chemically: quimicamente
growing: crescimento
middle east: leste médio
demand: demanda
worldwide: universal, mundial
shortages: faltas
free market: mercado livre
surpluses: excessos
Componentes do Grupo:
Felipe dos Santos nº 8
Ismael Fernandes Rojas nº 14
Lucas Silva dos Santos nº 28
Stefany Balbás Ferreira nº 37
3ºD
Alternative Fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.
Background
The main purpose of fuel is to store energy in a form that is stable and can be easily transported from the place of production to the end user which helps in many ways such as transportation. Almost all fuels are chemical fuels, that store chemical potential energy. The end user is then able to consume the fuel at will, and release energy, usually in the form of heat for a variety of applications, such as powering an engine, or heating a building, such as a home.
Demand for Alternative Fuels
In the year 2000, there were about eight million vehicles around the world that ran on alternative fuels, indicating an increasing popularity of alternative fuels. There is growing social interest, and a perceived economic and political need for the development of alternative fuel sources. This is due to general environmental, economic, and geopolitical concerns of sustainability.
The major environmental concern, according to an IPCC report, is that "Most of the observed increase in globally averaged temperatures since the mid-20th century is very likely due to the observed increase in anthropogenic greenhouse gas concentrations". Since burning fossil fuels are known to increase greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere, they are a likely contributor to global warming.
Another concern is the peak oil theory, which predicts a rising cost of oil derived fuels caused by severe shortages of oil during an era of growing energy consumption. According to the 'peak oil' theory, the demand for oil will exceed supply and this gap will continue to grow, which could cause a growing energy crisis starting between 2010 and 2020. Lastly, the majority of the known petroleum reserves are located in the middle east. There is general concern that worldwide fuel shortages could intensify the unrest that exists in the region, leading to further conflict and war.
The production of alternative fuels can have widespread effects. For example, the production of corn-based ethanol has created an increased demand for the feed stock, causing rising prices in almost everything made from corn. However, in a competitive free market, an increased supply of ethanol reduces the demand for conventional fuels, and thus lowers fuel prices. The ethanol industry enables agricultural surpluses to be used to mitigate fuel shortages.
Perguntas:
1- O que são combustíveis alternativos?
2- Dê exemplos de combustíveis alternativos?
3- De acordo com o texto qual o propósito principal do combustível alternativo?
4- Quais combustíveis colaboram para o aquecimento global?
5- O uso do milho como fonte para o etanol pode ter efeitos difundidos?
Vocabulário:
source: fonte
environmental: ambiental
chemically: quimicamente
growing: crescimento
middle east: leste médio
demand: demanda
worldwide: universal, mundial
shortages: faltas
free market: mercado livre
surpluses: excessos
Componentes do Grupo:
Felipe dos Santos nº 8
Ismael Fernandes Rojas nº 14
Lucas Silva dos Santos nº 28
Stefany Balbás Ferreira nº 37
3ºD
Alternative Fuels
The definition of Alternative Fuel varies according to the context of its usage. In the context of petroleum substitutes, the term 'alternative fuel' can imply any available fuel or energy source, and does not necessarily refer to a source of renewable energy. In the context of environmental sustainability, 'alternative fuel' often implies an ecologically benign renewable fuel. Alternative Fuels, also known as non-conventional fuels, are any materials or substances that can be used as a fuel, other than conventional fuels. Conventional fuels include: fossil fuels (petroleum (oil), coal, propane, and natural gas), and also in some instances nuclear materials such as uranium. Some well known alternative fuels include biodiesel, ethanol, butanol, chemically stored electricity (batteries and fuel cells), hydrogen, methane, natural gas, vegetable oil, biomass, and peanut oil.
Liquid hydrogen is the element hydrogen in the liquid state. It is a common liquid rocket fuel for rocket applications. In the aerospace industry, its name is often abbreviated to LH2. Hydrogen is found naturally in the molecular H2 form, thus the H2 part of the name.
Biomass
Biomass, in the energy production industry, refers to living and recently dead biological material which can be used as fuel or for industrial production. Most commonly, biomass refers to plant matter grown for use as biofuel, but it also includes plant or animal matter used for production of fibres, chemicals or heat. Biomass may also include biodegradable wastes that can be burnt as fuel. It excludes organic material which has been transformed by geological processes into substances such as coal or petroleum.
Ammonia
Liquid ammonia was used as the fuel of the rocket airplane, the X-15. Although not as powerful as other fuels, it left no soot in the reusable rocket engine, and has about the same density as the oxidizer, liquid oxygen, which simplified the aircraft's keeping the same center of gravity in flight. Anhydrous ammonia is a practical clean (CO2-free) and renewable fuel which can be and has been used to replace fossil fuel in powering internal combustion engines.[21] However, since the current, large scale methods of producing ammonia create CO2, it is debatable whether using ammonia as a fuel for internal combustion engines would reduce the overall global emissions of CO2.
Synthetic fuel
Synthetic fuel or synfuel is synfuel is any liquid fuel obtained from coal, natural gas, or biomass. It can sometimes refer to fuels derived from other solids such as oil shale, tar sand, waste plastics, or from the fermentation of biomatter. It can also (less often) refer to gaseous fuels produced in a similar way. The process of producing synfuels is often referred to as Coal-To-Liquids (CTL), Gas-To-Liquids (GTL) or Biomass-To-Liquids (BTL), depending on the initial feedstock. The best known synthesis process is the Fischer-Tropsch synthesis which was used on a large scale in Germany during World War II. Other processes include the Bergius process, the Mobil process and the Karrick process. An intermediate step in the production of synthetic fuel is often syngas, a stoichiometric mixture of carbon monoxide and hydrogen, which is sometimes directly used as an industrial fuel.
Natural gas
Natural Gas is a gaseous fossil fuel consisting primarily of methane but including significant quantities of ethane, butane, propane, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, helium and hydrogen sulfide. It is found in oil fields and natural gas fields, and in coal beds (as coalbed methane). When methane-rich gases are produced by the anaerobic decay of non-fossil organic material, these are referred to as biogas. Sources of biogas include swamps, marshes, and landfills (see landfill gas), as well as sewage sludge and manure by way of anaerobic digesters, in addition to enteric fermentation particularly in cattle. Natural gas is often informally referred to as simply gas, especially when compared to other energy sources such as electricity. Before natural gas can be used as a fuel, it must undergo extensive processing to remove almost all materials other than methane. The by-products of that processing include ethane, propane, butanes, pentanes and higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, elemental sulfur, and sometimes helium and nitrogen.
Future energy development
Main article: Future energy development
Extrapolations from current knowledge to future energy development offer a choice of energy futures. Some predictions parallel the Malthusian catastrophe hypothesis. Numerous are complex models based scenarios as pioneered by Limits to Growth. Modeling approaches offer ways to analyze diverse strategies, and hopefully find a road to rapid and sustainable development of humanity. Short term energy crises are also a concern of energy development.
Existing technologies for new energy sources, such as new renewable energy technologies, nuclear fission and fusion are promising, but need sustained research and development, including consideration of possible harmful side effects. Artificial Photosynthesis is another energy technology being researched and developed
Vocabulário:
approaches: aproximações;
coal: carvão;
decay: deteriorização;
harmfull: prejudicial;
knowledge: conhecimento;
landfil: aterrar;
manure: estrume;
sewage: esgoto;
sludge: lama;
soot: fuligem;
source: fonte;
swamp: pântano;
undergo: submeter-se.
Questões:
(1) Qual a constituição do gás natural?
(2) Qual a comum aplicação do hidrogênio líquido?
(3) Qual é o combustível que ocorre a partir da queima de desperdícios biodegradáveis?
(4) Segundo o texto quais as possíveis definições de combustíveis alternativos?
(5) De acordo com o texto de onde pode ser obtido o combustível sintético? Quais as ultizações citadas no texto desse combustível?
Nomes:
Priscila Fabiana, Raquel Ricciardi, Sellis Christine, Talita Dayane e Talita Rodrigues
N°
33, 34, 36, 39 e 40
Assinar:
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